Vineries
In regard to these, Vines, it may be remarked, are extremely accommodating, and will grow in any structure sufficiently exposed to the influence of light and air--an essential point. For certain purposes, however, it has been found that some forms are more suitable than others. Thus, for the growth of very early grapes, lean-to houses are most approved. They are naturally warmer, the back wall affording considerable shelter, and require less fixing, &c. For general purposes, the three-quarter span or hip-roofed vinery is much approved, combining the merits of the lean-to, facing the South, with those of the span-roof, generally erected facing East and West. The commonest form, and that most generally erected by the growers for market, is the span-roof Vineries may be of any size that circumstances allow for general cropping, but for early grapes, where much fire-heat is required, as well as for keeping late grapes, moderate-sized houses are desirable; and low houses are to be preferred to high ones for general utility and working purposes.
Heating. All structures for the growth of grapes should be efficiently warmed. Artificial heat, in distinction from solar heat, may be supplied either by flues or by hot-water piping. Flues are objectionable on account of the great amount of space they occupy, and the very arid heat they supply, favouring the intrusion of Red Spider, &c. Hot-water is the system now generally adopted. The amount of piping must be regulated by the special requirements in each case. An ample supply is preferable at all times, so as to avoid keeping the pipes at a high temperature, which is injurious.
Ground Vineries. The Vine may be grown in a very circumscribed space, and under very diverse conditions. The cottager with his single rod of ground may, by aid of "old Father Sol" and a few squares of glass, supplemented by care and attention, produce his own grapes nearly equal in quality to those of his lordly neighbour, with his costly vineries and gardening skill. Thanks to the introduction of cheap glass, and the examples of such worthy men as the late Mr. Thomas Rivers, Mr. Wells, Dr. Newington, and Mr. Harrison Weir, the success of ground vineries has been thoroughly established. The magnificent examples of grapes grown in ground vineries by Mr. Weir, consisting of such varieties as Black Hamburgh, Muscat Hamburgh, Muscat of Alexandria, and especially of Muscat Champion, all of which have been exhibited to the Fruit Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society, proved to be of very superior quality. Fig. 178 represents an extremely simple contrivance. A few plain bricks (or boards) form the back, some 2ft. to 3ft. high, and a simple wall-plate in front, on which the squares of glass are loosely placed, rests on couples of bricks. The structures, however, may be of almost any form, provided the Vine in its growth be thoroughly exposed to the direct influence of the sun's rays. Mr. Harrison Weir prefers a span-roofed structure, 7ft. in length, 2ft. 8in. wide, the sloping sides each 2ft. 8in. deep, and the height in centre, from ground line to ventilator, 1ft. 10in. The ends are of wood, with an air-hole for ventilation, fitted so as to be closed when required. A warm, dry soil, and an open, sunny situation, are of the greatest importance: there would be very little hope of success in a low-lying, cold situation.
The Vines should be planted inside the vinery, and trained along the top to a wire or pole going its whole length, and hung somewhat from it, so that the string or fastening may not be tight. The lights should never be taken off, either in summer or winter, for a permanence, or even left off for a single night, unless the weather be very hot, or for the purpose of ripening the wood. The bunches of fruit should be thinned in the usual way, and not so many left as to retard the ripening.
Varieties. Nearly all the cool-house Vines, such as Black Hamburgh, Buckland Sweetwater, Foster's Seedling, Madresfield Court, Muscat Champion, Royal Muscadine, and most of the small Chasselas and Frontignans, may be grown in this way, and, in most instances, with great success. PROPAGATION. The propagation of the Vine, as generally practised in this country, is effected by "eyes." By this term is meant the buds on the ripened shoots of the previous season's growth, as represented by Fig. 179. These are cut as shown, about 1in. or more in length, the best-matured wood, having firm, plump buds, or "eyes," being selected. The season best adapted for the operation is during the months of January and February--the earlier the better, so that the plants may have plenty of time to grow. A number of small pots or pans should be prepared, and filled with fine soil. A single eye should be inserted in the middle of each small pot, and pressed down until the top of the bud is just level with the surface of the soil: in the pans, a number of eyes may be inserted in the same manner, to be potted off singly afterwards. The pots and pans, when filled, should be plunged in a bed having a bottom-heat of about 80 deg., and a top temperature of from 65 deg. to 70 deg., and afterwards gently watered. Many other methods of "putting in" the eyes may be adopted. Great care is required when the buds commence to grow, they being extremely liable to "damp off" at this period. As soon as the roots have reached the sides of the pots, the plants should be transferred to larger ones, and plunged in the hotbed, to be repotted again, and so on. Vines may also be layered. This consists in taking a young shoot of a Vine, and pegging it down to the surface of the ground, or on pots; roots are freely produced, every bud becoming a separate plant when severed. In Vine-growing countries the plants are propagated by cuttings--i.e., shoots cut into lengths of from 10in. to 18in., which are frequently planted in their permanent positions at once. Budding and inarching are also practised in various ways. Grafting the Vine is largely adopted where it is desired to introduce new varieties without complete renewal of the plants. The grafting of Vines differs somewhat from that of ordinary grafting--not in the mechanical operation itself, which is practically the same, but owing to the extraordinary flow of sap which occurs in the Grape Vine at the commencement of growth in spring; if any portion of the stem be cut at that time, a very large out-pouring of watery fluid takes place, termed "bleeding," which prevents union. It is necessary to defer the operation until this flow ceases, which will be when the first few leaves have become properly expanded. Common whip-grafting is the simplest and best method to adopt. At whatever part of the stock it may be determined to affix the scion, it is necessary to leave a growing shoot and some leaves above this point, for the purpose of drawing off by evaporation the superabundant water that will have to be disposed of, and likewise for forming and perhaps drawing up nourishment for the supply of the scion itself until a union is effected. The scions being affixed, they should be tied securely, and covered with some sort of grafting wax in preference to either clay or moss. See also remarks under POT CULTURE.
CULTIVATION UNDER GLASS. The Grape Vine is a remarkably free-growing plant, and naturally requires a great amount of nourishment in the matter of soil, manure, and water, for its successful cultivation. Vine borders require to be constructed with some degree of care. Low-lying situations, with damp, cold subsoils, should be avoided; ample drainage is most essential. The best situation for a Vine border is on a gentle slope, where the ground is drained naturally. In such a situation, if on a gravelly subsoil, little artificial drainage is required. It is well, however, when forming a border, to put in from 1ft. to 1 1/2ft. of broken bricks, &c., as drainage; and in many cases it is expedient to concrete the bottom below this, so as to prevent any possibility of the roots descending. As to the sizes of the border, the roots of Vines travel (if allowed) a great way, and it is necessary to restrict their passage. An ordinary-sized border should correspond to the width of the house; thus, a vinery 16ft. wide may have a border 16ft. wide, and so on. A good practice is to form the border both inside and outside, the front wall being built on arches, so as to allow the roots to go either way The depth of a Vine border should range from 2ft. to 3ft., and need never exceed the latter figure.
Soil. The soil best suited for Vines is a fibry, calcareous, yellow loam that is, the top spit, or turf cut 3in. to 4in. thick, from some old pasture land. This may vary greatly, from light, sandy loam to that of a clayey nature. Chop the turfs roughly in pieces, and to five or six cubic yards add one yard of old lime rubbish or broken bricks, a small portion of charcoal, wood ashes, or burnt soil, and about 2cwt. of 1/2in. ground bones. These ingredients, well mixed, will constitute the main body of the soil to be used, modified in proportions according to the character of the loam. If the loam used be of a sandy nature, less of the lime rubbish will be required, as the main object in using this is to give porosity to the soil. The top-dressing of Vine borders is of great importance, and should be attended to every season; the greater the quantity of fresh soil that can be given, the better, especially after the Vines have got into heavy croppings. The soil used for this may be of a somewhat richer character than that recommended for the formation of the border. As much of the old soil should be taken away as can be afforded, and new soil added; or, if the soil cannot be removed, a dressing of some kind of manure should be given, and lightly forked into the border before the Vines commence to grow, in spring.
Manures. For the growth of Vines nearly all soils require the addition of some fertilising ingredients--some kind of manure. Farmyard manure is frequently used; but, as this rapidly decays, its influence is soon exhausted: it can only be recommended for mulching or top-dressing. Bones, as containing phosphate of lime, constitute one of the best manurial ingredients for mixing with the soil; being slow to decay, they continue to afford sustenance for many years. Large, unbroken bones are next to useless. Bone-meal, dissolved bones, and horn-shavings are all valuable ingredients of a similar character presented in a more readily available form, and, consequently, more immediately effective. Potash manures are of special value to Vines: a mixture of 1/2cwt. of super-phosphate to 1cwt. of nitrate of potash, applied at the rate of 1lb. to the square yard, has been found highly beneficial. A very excellent prepared, or what is termed "artificial," manure, now largely used, is Thomson's Vine Manure. Mulching is very necessary in hot, dry seasons, not only as a means of enrichment to the soil, but also for the prevention of evaporation, whereby a greater and more constant degree of humidity may be maintained. Covering Vine borders, excepting where very early grapes are required, is unnecessary. Watering is one of the most important operations; perhaps more Vines are ruined through want of water than from any other cause. During the growing season, Vines can scarcely receive an over-supply. Inside borders require special care and attention in this respect, as they receive no benefit from the rains, and are directly and entirely under the control of the cultivator. When the fruit is ripe, a somewhat drier condition should be maintained, but it is not desirable to allow the soil to become very dry even then.
Planting. Vines may be planted at any season of the year, provided all the requisite conditions be fulfilled. October is a very good period, the soil then being generally in good condition: the roots commence to grow a little, and get, to some extent, established before spring. January and February are another good season. In planting ripened Vines, care should be taken to shake out all the soil from the roots, and to spread these fully out as near to the surface as possible. Another method is that of planting the young growing Vines that have been raised from eyes during the same season; this would take place in May, June, or July. These Vines, if properly attended to in regard to heat and moisture, make the very best of plants. As to the distances apart at which Vines should be planted, this almost entirely depends on the style of training to be adopted. They should never be less than 4ft., to allow the side shoots to develop; in many cases, 5ft. is preferable. Pruning and Training. The Vine is a free-growing, long-lived plant. In its natural state it is of a climbing character, sustaining itself by its tendrils, so that in its cultivated condition it has to be supported in some way. Of the various methods adopted in the training of the Vine, three call for notice here: (1) That practised in the vineyards or wine-growing countries; the young or fruit-bearing shoots are tied to upright poles, 6ft. to 8ft. in height, the plants being about the same distance apart. In other cases they are sometimes pruned into the form of candelabra or other fancy shapes. (2) That adopted for Vines against walls, as practised at Thomery. (3) In this country, the Grape Vine is generally trained, in vineries, to trellises fixed at a certain distance from the glass or roof of the house, and is pruned either on what is termed the Spur system, or on that known as the Long Rod system, each of which is subject to all sorts of modifications according to fancy or convenience. The Spur System is that most practised, and may be briefly described thus: The Vines being planted at the proper distances apart, the young plants are cut down to some three or four eyes from the ground; one shoot is trained up in the first season, forming the main stem of the Vine. During the winter season following, this stem is cut back to some 5ft. or 6ft. in length, according to its strength. In the second year, the buds on this stem form shoots on which the fruit is borne, and which are stopped at one or two leaves beyond the bunches, or at a length of 16in. or 18in., the main stem being allowed to extend as before. In pruning, the next winter, these side shoots are cut back to one or two buds, which, being left, form what is termed a "spur", the main stem being pruned back to 5ft. or 6ft. as before. In the third year, one or more shoots are produced from each spur, one of which is selected, trained and stopped as before, and again pruned in winter to one or more eyes; and so on from year to year--in most cases, the Vines filling their allotted space in five or six years. The Long Rod system consists in leaving a number of young shoots or rods to form the bearing shoots, and it is more suitable for some varieties than the Spur system. Vines may be trained to any number of stems or rods, and extended as circumstances may permit, the pruning otherwise being similar.
Disbudding. The first operation that requires to be performed each succeeding year, on the commencement of the growth of the Vine, and to which attention must be early directed, is that which is termed disbudding, but which is, in reality, a thinning-out and regulating of the young shoots. This is an operation of very great importance in respect to young Vines, as upon its being properly performed will depend the future form or character of the plant. Disbudding is, in fact, the first step in training, although it is practised much in the same manner long after the form of the Vine is established. The time for disbudding is as soon as it may be perceived that there are more buds than are requisite--say, when the shoots are an inch or so in length; but the sooner it is done, the better. To allow the superfluous buds to develop into shoots, and then to break them off, is a waste of the energies of the plant.
In disbudding a young Vine, or a leading shoot of the previous year's growth, the first care should be for the top or leading bud, the growth from which should be carefully tied in and preserved from injury, as forming a continuation of the stem. In the disbudding of a young Vine, we also regulate the number of shoots which form the future spurs. To allow space for the full development of the foliage, these side-shoots should not be less than 18in. or 20in. apart. It frequently happens, especially in the case of slowly-grown Vines, that the buds on the stem are more numerous than the shoots required, and in such cases all superfluous buds must be removed--"rubbed off," as the phrase is. Nothing is more pernicious in Vine culture than the crowding of the shoots and leaves. It is well, therefore, to make a fair beginning, with the proper number, and this is done by disbudding.
Disbudding, also, at times, takes the place of pruning. If the lower buds of a young Vine-rod do not break well, it is a good plan to rub off the higher or top buds, which will induce the lower ones to break stronger. Again, if it has been forgotten to prune a Vine or shoot until it has become too late to do so, on account of the risk of bleeding, the neglect may, to some extent, be rectified by a careful rubbing-off of the buds, as soon as they may appear, to the point to which the shoot ought to have been pruned; and then, when the leaves are about fully developed, the sap of the Vine will be sufficiently diverted, and the shoot may be pruned with safety.
Stopping the Shoots. This is requisite in order to keep the growth within certain limits, and thus to prevent overcrowding and confusion. According to the Spur system, the main stems being from 4ft. to 5ft. apart, the side shoots, on which the fruit is borne, cannot be allowed to extend to more than 2 1/2ft. in length, otherwise they must overlap each other. The length of the shoots is generally regulated by the position of the bunch, the usual practice being to stop them at two joints beyond the bunch, or at one point beyond, if there is not space for a greater extension. Practically, the longer these shoots can be allowed to grow, the better, as the greater the quantity of fully-developed first leaves, the greater the amount of vigour induced. The operation itself should be performed as soon as the shoot attains the requisite length, and is done simply by pinching off the tip, between the finger and thumb, before it has become fully developed. There is thus scarcely anything to take off, no denuding of the Vine of a portion of its foliage, and no consequent check to its growth. It is a very bad practice indeed to allow the shoots to grow to such a length as to render it necessary to use the knife in stopping them. The tendril forming a part of the bunch of fruit should be pinched off at the same time, also all superfluous bunches. After this first pinching or stopping, the foremost buds in the axils of the leaves again produce shoots, according to their vigour, which are called laterals, or summer lateral shoots. They should be stopped in the same way immediately beyond the first leaf, and so on again and again throughout the season, as they may continue to grow.
The leading shoot of a young Vine is, of course, to be exempted from this stopping, excepting in so far as relates to the laterals it produces; and these, if space is limited, must be stopped in the manner explained, or they may be trained out in the same way as the proper shoots, and allowed to extend and occupy as much space as may be available. It should always be borne in mind that the greater the quantity of fully-developed leaves and shoots, the more powerful must be the root action, and the more vigorous the plant. The stopping of the shoots of a Vine is not a checking or repressing of its vigour, but rather a guiding or directing of its energies into certain channels of a more desirable and beneficial character than those they would follow if left to themselves.
Setting or Fertilisation of the Fruit. If the flowers are not properly fertilised, they will probably fall off, or, perhaps, small berries may be formed; but, as no seed can be produced by reason of non-fertilisation, they, as a consequence, will not grow to their proper size. The impregnating process, in a mechanical point of view, consists of the application of the pollen to the stigma of the flower. It is effected at a very early stage, the little jerk occasioned by the dislodgment of the "cap" or covering causing the pollen-dust to be dispersed. This is generally effected naturally, or without any assistance beyond the maintenance of the proper temperature, atmospheric condition, &c., and these, of course, vary according to circumstances. Some cultivators consider it necessary to maintain a very high temperature--from 65 deg. to 70 deg. by night--for the setting of their grapes. This, even if desirable for the forcing-on of the grapes, is not required for the mere "setting" of the fruit. For example, in late houses, and on open walls, the Vines set their fruit quite freely at a lower temperature. Grapes frequently set well at as low a temperature as 45 deg. by night. Temperature ranging from 55 deg. to 60 deg. by night is quite high enough for the mere purpose of setting the fruit, provided there be the desired rise during the day. The setting process takes place in the early morning and forenoon. The temperature by day should always be high by sun-heat. The one great requirement is sunshine, with a fine, mild, bracing atmosphere, so that fresh air in abundance may be admitted to the houses. It is the bracing air, supplemented by the action of sun-heat, which induces the dispersion of the pollen, and by this means effects the setting of the berries. At times, when sunshine is wanting, it is well to apply artificial assistance, such as "setting" the flowers with foreign pollen, by the aid of a camel-hair pencil. The smallest portion of pollen applied to the stigma will be sufficient; or the plan of smartly tapping the stems of the Vines, so as to shake the bunches, may be adopted, when the pollen will be seen to fly off like a cloud of dust; or, again, recourse may be had to drawing the hand gently over the bunch. The last plan is frequently practised with success amongst the "shy setters."
Certain varieties of Grapes, it is well known, set their fruit freely at all times, and under all sorts of conditions that may be favourable for the Vine. Other varieties do not set freely, whatever may be the reason, and are, in consequence, termed "bad setters." Many and varied conjectures and ideas have been submitted from time to time as to the probable cause of this defect. The pollen and the stigma in some varieties do not ripen at the same time, so that fertilisation cannot take place, and the action of foreign pollen becomes necessary. In other cases the pollen is found to be inert; and some varieties--notably, Black Morocco--have the point of the stigma exceedingly moist, which seems to prevent fertilisation, although this is a condition generally supposed to be favourable for the reception of the pollen. Attention has also recently been directed to the fact that certain shy-setting Grapes--e.g., Alnwick Seedling, Chaouch, and some American sorts--have the stamens deflexed, or falling away from the stigma, so that they cannot readily be fertilised (the ordinary Vine flower has the stamens erect, and pressing round the stigma). In such cases, the defect of non-setting being due to a structural or constitutional peculiarity, artificial impregnation is the only remedy to adopt.
Thinning the Fruit. The Vine is an extremely fruitful plant; so much so, that were the whole crop of the bunches produced by it allowed to remain, the plant would soon succumb through over-fertility. It is impossible to state how many bunches, or what crop, a Vine should carry, so much depends upon its health and constitution, on its surroundings, and on the subsequent management accorded it. A rule something like this might be laid down: According to the surface of properly-developed leaves, &c., so should be the crop of fruit taken. We know we must have so many good leaves for every pound of fruit. The greater the amount of properly-developed foliage allowed, the better. If we bear in mind that all the colouring and sweetening matter, which goes to the perfecting of the berries, has first to pass through and be elaborated by the leaves, we shall see that without a certain amount of healthy leaf-surface good fruit cannot be produced. A Vine with weak, sickly foliage cannot produce or bear much fruit, and a plant whose foliage gets destroyed by Red Spider, &c., is in exactly the same condition.
One bunch on each spur would be considered a heavy crop; an average of 1lb. to every foot of rod is about the general quantity left, and is considered an ordinary crop. In thinning the bunches of such free varieties as the Black Hamburgh, every second bunch on each spur should be cut off before the flowers open, and all others which it is desirable to remove as soon as the grapes are set. The thinning of the bunches, as well as of the berries, should be done early. It is a great waste of power to allow that to develop itself which is not required, and which it is known must be cut away; therefore, as soon as the berries are fairly set, thin out-that is, cut off-the supernumerary bunches at once, and commence the thinning of the berries. The thinning of the berries-or grape-thinning, as it popularly called-is a delicate and somewhat tedious operation. To be expert at this work requires considerable practice. For ordinarily well-set Black Hamburgh grapes, about one-third the number of berries require to be cut out; such varieties as the Royal Muscadine do not require to be so severely treated. It seems to the uninitiated a great sacrifice to cut away so many, the thinned bunch appearing quite a skeleton; but as each berry, when fully grown, should be nearly 1in. in diameter (oftentimes more), there is nothing gained by leaving more than space actually permits. In thinning, first trim the bunch, if required, into proper shape, then continue by cutting out all the inside berries, next all the small berries, and then the side berries. The expert hand will cut these off two or three or more at a time. It will now only remain to regulate the growing berries to the required distance apart.
With larger bunches it is frequently desirable to tie up the shoulders, and so spread the bunch out, or to loop them up to the trellis with S-shaped pieces of thin wire of the requisite length, or to prop the shoulders up from underneath with little bits of wood: the berries, as they swell, lift each other up, and the clusters thus remain compact. Care should be taken not to make the bunches too thin. They should be so thinned that, when ripe and cut, the bunch or cluster may remain firm and compact, whilst every berry has been allowed to develop itself freely to its full size. As a general rule, the Vines require to be gone over twice before the stoning period, and once after, during what is termed the second swelling in order to remove all small berries, and otherwise regulate the bunches. In the great Vine-growing establishments, the major part of this work is performed by women and young persons.
FORCING. Since the introduction of orchard-houses, ground vineries, and other unheated structures for the cultivation of the Vine, this term, at one time very expressive of a definite condition, has become nearly obsolete. Any means that may be adopted for the forwarding of the growth of a plant to a greater extent than would take place naturally, may be termed forcing. Heat is the motive power. Some Vines are forced in spring, to induce them to commence growth early; others require forcing in autumn, to ripen their fruit. The Vine growing in an unheated orchard-house-that is, not heated artificially-is forced by solar heat to a certain degree.
Vines may be forced into growth, and to bear fruit at any season of the year, provided that the wood is properly ripened. Early-forced Vines of one season force more readily the following year, and established Vines always more easily than young ones. To secure early grapes, say in April, the Vines should be started into growth in November. The time required from the commencement of growth to the ripening of the fruit is, for the Black Hamburgh, about five months. Thus, Vines started in March should have fruit ripe at the end of July, and those coming naturally into growth by the end of March, in August and September. The Muscat of Alexandria, Gros Colman, Alicante, Lady Downnes' Seedling, and other late grapes, require nearly six months to ripen thoroughly. If, say on January 1, we take as an example a vinery from which ripe grapes are required to be cut in the month of June, the management or treatment necessary to secure this end may be stated in general terms, as follows:
Temperature. At the commencement, a night temperature of about 60 deg. will be sufficient until the Vines have started growing. The heat should be gradually raised to 70 deg. by the time they come into flower. When the grapes are fairly set, a lower temperature may be maintained until after the stoning period, when, if necessary, a rise of a few degrees may be allowed. When the grapes commence to colour, the temperature may be lower, but fire-heat is nearly always required, in order that a bracing atmosphere may be maintained. For day temperatures a rise of 5 deg. by fire-heat may be allowed in dull, cold weather, and of 10 deg. or more if by sun-heat, up to 80 deg. or 90 deg., as the season advances. In very cold weather, however, it is better to have a lower temperature than to maintain a high one by overheated pipes. Ventilation. The object to be attained by ventilation is not merely the maintenance or regulation of the temperature, but also the admission of fresh air. The night temperature is mostly regulated by the amount of artificial heat applied; but the day temperature, or amount of sun-heat, is regulated by ventilation. In Vineries a little air should be admitted by the top ventilators early in the morning, or as soon as it may be observed that the temperature has risen or is rising above the required point, and this air should be gradually increased as the day and the temperature advance; and soon should be reduced in like manner, endeavouring, if possible, to shut up early enough to secure a slight rise in the temperature after doing so. Closing early at all times, and "bottling up," as it were, the sun's warm rays, is desirable. As the grapes begin to colour, air must be freely given, both by day and by night.
Moisture. This, in its relation to the atmosphere, is of great importance to the healthy progress of the Vine. A close, moist atmosphere is necessary to induce the buds to break freely, and afterwards to assist in supplying nutriment to the Vines through the leaves. Again, moisture is requisite to prevent the destruction of the leaves by insects.
From the commencement, then, a humid atmosphere must be maintained: the higher the temperature, the greater the evaporation, and the greater the amount of moisture required. When the Vines are started, they should be syringed regularly several times a day, especially if the weather be bright and warm, beginning as soon as it is perceived that the temperature is rising, and so on, varying as to time according to season, &c. This treatment may be continued until the Vines come into flower, at which period a somewhat drier atmosphere should be maintained until fertilisation has taken place. Syringing must from this time be discontinued: on account of the lime present in almost all water, the berries become spotted and soiled by its use. Every portion of the house and border, however, should be freely watered at all times, and the atmosphere kept well charged with moisture.
When the grapes are beginning to colour, a somewhat drier atmosphere is required; and by the time they are ripe, the air should be kept as dry and bracing as possible. After the grapes are cut, if it be during the growing season, the syringe should be again freely employed to thoroughly cleanse the leaves and wood, and its use continued until they ripen off. POT CULTURE. The growing of Vines in pots is of a twofold character: first, that of producing plants for planting-out, subsequently to be grown as permanent Vines; and secondly, that of producing plants for fruiting in pots. Some cultivators grow the Vines obtained from eyes "struck" in early spring to their "fruiting state" the same season Others strike the eyes and grow the plants on so far, and the following year cut down, re-pot, and grow on again, thus occupying two years in producing a similar result. The one-year-old plants, if properly grown, are generally considered the better; but they are only produced under very favourable conditions, requiring an excessive amount of care and attention, and cost, possibly, more than the two-year-old plants, or "cut-backs," as they are familiarly called.
Potting. Liberal pot room must be provided, so as to grow the Vines quickly; therefore, as soon as it is found that the roots have reached the bottom or sides of the pot, re-pot into a 5in. or 48-sized pot, from this, immediately the roots have again reached the bottom, into an 8in., and from this into a 10in. or 12in. pot, which is called the fruiting-pot. This last size will be found quite large enough for all practical purposes. Plants that are intended to be grown the second year need not be potted into larger than 8in. pots. After the last shift, which should not take place later than the beginning of July, when the pots get stored with roots, they should be liberally top-dressed from time to time; this top-dressing will be found to get filled with fibry roots.
Soil. The best, fresh, fibry loam that can be procured, with the admixture of broken charcoal, and a little bone-dust and decayed manure, should be chosen for the first potting; the rougher the condition in which the soil is used, the better. The pots must be carefully and efficiently drained. For the second and third pottings, the soil may be somewhat richer. Top-dressings should consist of half-rotted manure mixed with the soil, together with some horn-shavings or bones. Care must be taken, in potting, to have the soil of the same temperature as that of the houses in which the plants are growing, and the Vines should be potted in the same place if possible, so as to prevent any possibility of chill from exposure, the check to their growth arising therefrom being extremely injurious at this stage.
Watering, &c. Abundance of water is at all times necessary for growing Vines. They should be syringed several times a day, and the atmosphere kept continually charged with moisture. When the fruiting-pots are full of roots, liquid manure should be frequently applied.
Temperature. Vine-eyes, on being struck, should be plunged in a bed having a bottom-heat of 80 deg., and an atmospheric temperature by fire-heat of 65 deg. or 70 deg., which, by sun-heat, may be allowed to rise to 90 deg. or 100 deg. Too much sun-heat can scarcely be indulged in, if the atmosphere be plentifully charged with moisture. The same regulations as to temperature apply throughout the season, or until the Vines begin to ripen. Bottom-heat is not requisite when the plants attain a large size.
Training, &c. As the young Vines grow, they require to be staked, and to have the tendrils and lateral shoots pinched off as they are put forth. The leading shoot should not be stopped until it has grown to the required length. When the Vines have arrived at their full length, from 6ft. to 10ft. as the case may be, they must be stopped, and the laterals, as they appear, kept closely stopped also to the first leaf, in exactly the same manner as recommended for permanent Vines. When the canes are ripened, which may be in November, they should be at once pruned; that is, all the lateral spurs should be cut off, and the stem cut down to the length required-from 5ft. to 8ft., according to its strength.
The young Vines, whilst growing, should be kept as close to the glass as possible; and as they increase in length, a good situation for them is along the front of a low pit or house, training the rods to a trellis against the roof. In this manner the whole of the leaves, &c., are fully exposed to the sun's influence, and well-developed fruiting buds are produced the entire length of the rod.
Ripening the Canes. The ordinary method, towards the end of the season, when the Vines are fully grown and show signs of ripening off, which they will do naturally, is to give gradually more air and less water, and after a short time to allow them to be fully exposed or removed to the open air. The plants, however, should never be allowed to flag or suffer from want to water. Production of Fruiting Vines in Two or more Years. The treatment required is practically the same as that recommended for the one-year-old Vines, with this difference, that, instead of beginning with "eyes," young plants have to be dealt with. In winter, these young Vines should be cut down to one or two eyes or buds; and in January or February, the pots should be placed in heat. As soon as the eyes have started, the plants should be repotted, the old soil being shaken out and new soil applied. The smaller the pot that will contain the roots, the better. The plants should be plunged in bottom-heat, and repotted as required, and as already directed. These "cut-back" Vines, having somewhat the start of the "eyes," generally form the largest and strongest plants. They may be, and sometimes are, grown to a great size, and potted into the largest pots, when they produce enormous crops, some twenty-five or thirty bunches on a single plant, notable examples of which have been often exhibited by Messrs. Lane and Son, of Berkhamsted. Some of these large Vines may be fruited in pots for several years.
Treatment of Fruiting Vines. The forcing of pot Grapes may commence in November, or at any subsequent period. Those selected for early forcing should be the first ripened, and the canes should have been pruned quite a month before their introduction to heat, otherwise they may bleed. The use of well-ripened canes is a most important matter for early forcing. A low house or pit is the most suitable for pot Vines. They have simply to be placed on a shelf along the front; or the pots plunged in a slight hotbed. The temperature at first should not exceed 50 deg. by artificial heat, but must be increased, as the eyes break and begin to grow, to 60 deg., and about the flowering period to 70 deg. or there-abouts. With sun-heat the temperature should range much higher; but in this respect the treatment of pot Vines as regards general management, atmospheric conditions, ventilation of the house, &c., is exactly similar to that of plants grown in the ordinary Vinery. After the Vines are placed in heat, water must be very sparingly applied for some time, until the roots commence growing, otherwise the soil will become sour and the roots will decay: it is better to allow them to be a little dry than otherwise. As the plants come into full leaf, a copious supply of water will be required. Whilst the fruit is ripening, extreme care is necessary-especially if the crop be a heavy one-to maintain the Vines in a thoroughly healthy state. Careless watering will destroy the best of crops; more failures are attributable to this cause than to any other. Liquid manure should be frequently given to the healthy plants.
Re-potting is seldom required. The best time to re-pot is about the period of the setting of the grapes, the roots being then in an active state, so that they soon take to the new soil. Top-dressings of soil mixed with horn or bone shavings, &c., should be freely applied.
As to their cropping capabilities, a strong Black Hamburgh Vine, in a 12in. pot, may be allowed to bear 8lb. or 10lb. of grapes-from six to eight fair-sized bunches.
A Royal Muscadine Vine should bear from ten to twelve bunches; but this is dependent upon the strength and health of the plant. The ordinary or utilitarian method is to train Pot Vines to a fixed trellis, the plants being placed about 2ft. apart, so that when the side shoots with the fruit, &c., are trained out, the whole trellis may be covered. Another mode is to twist the canes coil fashion round two or three strong stakes placed in the pot, thus giving the plants, when fully grown, the appearance of columnar bushes. Another mode is to train the shoots so as to form a sort of umbrella-shaped head, with the bunches hanging round. These latter are all more or less graceful and ornamental.
Varieties. The varieties best suited for fruiting in pots are the free-bearing kinds, such as Alicante, Black Hamburgh, all the Chasselas group, Foster's White Seedling, Madresfield Court, Royal Ascot, and Royal Muscadine. The Muscat of Alexandria is difficult to cultivate in pots, and Gros Guillaume scarcely shows any fruit at all.
CULTIVATION ON OPEN WALLS. Grapes were, at one time, much more extensively grown in the open air in this country than they are at present. This may principally be ascribed to the following causes: (1) The introduction of cheap glass, whereby structures for the cultivation of the Grape Vine with a considerable degree of success, may be erected at a moderate cost. In olden times, the seasons were not always propitious and suitable for Vine-growing any more than they are at the present day, although we read accounts of some very fine fruits having been grown on open standards in 1818. (2) The Mildew, the intrusion of which scourge to the Vine, in the year 1847, has rendered its cultivation in the open air in this country extremely precarious. Although sulphur is well known as a remedy, its application to Vines in the open air is not so easy to accomplish, and, therefore, the results are not so effectual as could be desired. It is very seldom now that outdoor grapes entirely escape this malady. (3) A series of cold, sunless seasons, in which the outdoor grapes have seldom ripened, so that their cultivation has gradually come to be nearly abandoned. If a little more attention to the proper culture of the plant, and to the thinning and taking care of the fruit, were given, no doubt better results would follow; and it seems a pity we do not see Vines more frequently adorning the walls of our cottage homes in the more southern parts of the country. There the Grape Vine would be not only ornamental but useful. As a plant it is perfectly hardy, and it grows freely. In spring the young shoots are sometimes injured by late frosts, and in cold seasons the wood does not ripen thoroughly, but it is the fruit that is tender, and that only in so far as it generally requires more heat than our climate affords to ripen it. Soil. The Vine will grow in any good garden soil which is freely exposed to light and air, and well drained; the more of a loamy character it has, and the fresher it is, the better. Before planting, the soil should be well dug or trenched to a fair depth, and some well-decayed manure, ground bones, &c., applied.
Position. This must be warm and sheltered--a wall facing the south, or a roof sloping in the same direction. Any other aspect is useless. Planting should be done early in the autumn, so that the roots may get into action before winter.
Pruning and Training must, to a certain extent, be very similar to the practice adopted under glass. Vines to be trained to single stems should be planted about 2ft. apart, and pruned on the spur system. It is preferable, however, to allow Vines on open walls to cover a greater space, and to have many stems or branches. These may be trained in an upright direction, at about 1 1/2ft. apart, and may be pruned on the spur system; another method is that of training the stems in a horizontal direction. Thus, at the first pruning, the Vine is cut down to a height of about 1 1/2ft., and three shoots or stems are trained up the first year. At the winter pruning, one of these stems is trained out horizontally to the right, the other to the left; these, being pruned according to their strength to 4ft. or 5ft. in length, form the first or lower tier of branches on which the fruiting shoots or spurs are to be produced. The third shoot is trained upright; if strong, it may be pruned to 4ft. or 5ft. long, and the following season one or more side branches may be added in a similar manner, the distance apart being 18in. or 20in. The fruit-bearing shoots may be about 1ft. apart, and should be nailed in on the upper side of the stems only. Vines so trained may be extended to any distance, and pruned in winter in the usual manner. Disbudding must be carefully attended to, and the bearing shoots regularly stopped at one leaf beyond the fruit; and all the lateral shoots subsequently produced must be carefully removed.
To secure the best results, the bunches and berries should be carefully thinned, and, in the case of white grapes, fully exposed during the ripening period to the rays of the sun. If long, straggling bunches are produced, it is better to shorten them, as short, compact bunches ripen best. Varieties. The greater portion of the Sweetwater section, with a few of the smaller Muscats, will be found more or less suitable for cultivation in the open air. In France the variety met with is invariably the Chasselas de Fontainebleau, which in this country is known as the Royal Muscadine. As grown in France, with the beautiful cinnamon-russet colour, it is very rich and pleasant. The Royal Muscadine is, at the present time, the leading grape for outdoor culture. A much better variety, not yet sufficiently well known, is the Chasselas Vibert, which produces larger berries, and ripens about a fortnight earlier, than the Royal Muscadine; Ascot Citronelle, Black July, Espiran, and Grove End Sweetwater, may also be recommended. In some warm seasons, the Black Hamburgh ripens its fruit very well. KEEPING THE FRUIT. Grapes, unlike most other kinds of fruit, will keep in a ripened state, and in a usable condition, on the plant for a long time, a certain amount of nourishment being necessary to the maintenance of the berries in a properly fresh and plump condition. If severed from the Vine, they soon shrivel or decay, unless the stalks be placed in water, or sustenance be provided in some other way. Properly ripened, and placed under favourable circumstances, grapes will keep in excellent condition for a long time. Some varieties possess this keeping property to a greater extent than others. The fact of being thus able to keep ripe grapes prolongs the season of their use, and assist in maintaining a continuous supply. The cultivation of the Vine in glass-houses is the primary means by which we are enabled thus to keep its fruit. Grapes grown in the open air cannot be preserved for any length of time on account of the weather, but in vineries they are under control. Houses, therefore, that are required for late or keeping grapes should be so constructed as to meet the special requirements of the case; and these are an equable temperature and a dry atmosphere, which are maintained by proper heating powers and through ventilation. Grapes that are required for late use should be ripened by the end of September. When the fruit becomes ripe, the most active period of the growth of the Vine is past; but it is not well, although a very old custom, to keep the borders and the roots dry. The artificial drought is injurious to the roots, which are still in action, and not beneficial to the fruit, for the longer the foliage can be maintained fresh and green, the better the grapes will keep. Constant supervision is necessary, and great care should be taken to remove any decaying berries, keeping the temperature as near 45deg. as possible.
Ripe grapes may be kept in good condition on the Vines until March, or later if carefully shaded from the sun, and a cool, dry atmosphere be maintained. If allowed to hang until the rise of the sap, the operation of pruning is likely to be injurious to the Vines.
Bottling Grapes. Grapes may be cut from the Vines, and, having their stalks placed in bottles of water, may be kept in a fruit-room, or other suitable apartment, in almost as perfect a condition as those that are allowed to hang on the Vines; and where the quantity is limited, this can be done at much less expense. Further, they may thus be preserved to a later period than it is possible to keep them on the Vines. This is a method of keeping grapes that has been for some time adopted in France, although it was scarcely known in this country until brought under notice by Mr. Robinson, in his "Parks, Promenades, and Gardens of Paris," in 1869. It is now, however, adopted, with modifications, in many establishments in this country. The originator of the system was M. Rose-Charmeux, of Thomery, who had a small room in his house fitted for the purpose, from which light and air were, as far as possible, excluded.
One of the best examples of this method is that used at Ferrieres, near Paris, the seat of Baron Alphonse de Rothschild, where M. Bergmann, the excellent gardener, has a grape-room specially fitted for the purpose, and in this all the grapes are placed as they become ripe. Fig. 185 is an illustration of his mode of fixing the bottles, and Fig. 186 shows the arrangement of screens or partitions adopted within the room for the convenient stowage of the bottles when in use.
The ordinary fruit-room will not answer for this purpose; the grapes cannot be kept with other fruits, as they require special provision made for them. A thoroughly dry, close, dark room, wherein an equable temperature of 40deg. to 45deg. can be maintained, is what is required. Dryness is the first consideration, so, if a separate room has to be constructed, it should be built with hollow walls and a double set of doors, in order to counteract the effects of fluctuations in temperature and moisture. The grapes intended to be thus kept should be cut with a considerable portion of the shoot attached, and the end of the shoot placed in a bottle filled with pure water. Opinions differ as to whether the fruit is deteriorated in quality by being thus kept. It is obvious that support is derived from the water, and this subsequent absorption of water can scarcely act otherwise than to reduce the amount of saccharine properties in the fruit.
The best late-keeping Grapes are those varieties having thick skins, viz.: Alnwick Seedling, Gros Colman, Gros Guillaume, Lady Downes' Seedling, Muscat of Alexandria, Trebbiano, West's St. Peter's, and White Tokay. It is difficult to keep Black Hamburgh Grapes in good condition on the Vines after Christmas; but if cut before that time, and placed in bottles, they may be had in a sound state during the month of January.
DISEASES, &c. These have been far more studied in France and in other Continental countries, than they have been in England, since in the latter country Vines are more especially luxuries, grown in greenhouses; while on the Continent they are among the most valuable of cultivated plants, and their destruction from any cause may mean ruin to their cultivators. Hence, the greater part of our information with regard to the diseases of Vines, and the appropriate treatment for each, is due to the researches of French and German biologists. The causes of disease are various, including excess or defect of warmth, moisture, exposure to light, and food, defective ventilation of vineries, attacks of Fungi and of insects and other animals. Two diseases to which Vines are liable have been already treated of under Shrivelling and Sun-burning. The former is due to insufficient supply of water, either because of its deficiency in the soil, or because of the roots failing to transmit a proper amount to the leaves and fruit. The latter may be due to the roots being too few for the necessities of the plant, or to coldness of the soil after the air of the vinery has induced active growth in the young shoots and leaves. The plants may also suffer, in ill-ventilated vineries, from "sun-burning" of the leaves, small portions becoming brown and dry, in the manner described under Sun-burning.
Bleeding. A term applied to an overflow or outpouring of watery sap, although there is no real analogy between this flow of water and the efflux of blood in animals. The Vine is furnished with an enormous supply of this watery sap, which flows very freely, and with great force, shortly after growth commences, until the plant gets into full leaf. The cause of bleeding is late pruning or otherwise cutting the Vine at this period. This loss of sap is sometimes excessive, and is then injurious to the Vine. There is no ready means of arresting the flow when once it has commenced. To avoid its occurrence, Vines should be pruned early.
Shanking. One of the most perplexing maladies that affect the Vine. The term is used to denote the drying-up or withering of the stalks of the bunches or berries; the berries that thus shank, or lose the vitality of their stalks, become intensely sour, and never ripen. Sometimes, it is only a few berries; in other cases, it is the whole bunch, or maybe the entire crop. Many and varied opinions as to the causes of shanking have been advanced. In a broad sense, it is, no doubt, the result of some overstrain, some bad condition of, or injury to, the feeding or respiratory organs of the plant--either the foliage has been in some way injured or prevented from performing its proper functions, or the roots have got into bad condition, and cannot perform theirs; or it may be due to a combination of both these causes. As to the more immediate causes, we note the following: Over-cropping; the destruction of the foliage by Red Spider or other agency; the stripping-off of a great quantity of leaves at one time, as is frequently done by those who neglect timely stopping; chills, or sudden changes of the temperature of the house; the roots getting into a cold subsoil, or the border becoming wet and soddened, &c.; planting in borders composed of too rich materials; excessive dryness at the roots, such as to cause injury to these organs, &c.--all of which should be avoided.
Adventitious or Air Roots. These are so called from their being produced on the stem of the Vine, and suspended in the air like so many threads. They are of the same character as the proper roots, only requiring to be brought into contact with the soil to become such. Air roots are sometimes produced in great profusion from every part of the stem, frequently attaining 1ft. or more in length, and so give the Vine a strange appearance. There is no particular harm in these adventitious roots, per se, but their presence betokens a want of proper action on the part of the true roots running naturally in the soil. They are a sign of bad health, and are frequently the precursors of shanking; they give evidence that the proper roots are not in a condition to supply the great demands of a large expanse of foliage, &c., and that, aided by a warm, moist atmosphere within the house, Nature is trying to supply this want. Close warmth and moisture will induce the formation of such roots from Vine-stems at any time; but if the true roots in the border are in a perfectly congenial condition, no air or adventitious roots will be produced in any ordinarily well-managed vinery. They are, in short, mainly the result of the roots being in a cold, wet border. To prevent their formation, or to recover Vines subject to this evil, the amelioration of the borders must be effected, by taking up the Vines, examining the condition of the drainage, renewing it if found necessary, and adding fresh soil. Some varieties of Vines, such as those of the Frontignan class, being of a tenderer constitution, are more subject to the formation of air roots than others. When such roots are produced, they need not be cut off, except for appearance' sake, for they will wither and die as the wood ripens.
FUNGI as causes of disease are treated of under Vine Fungi. ANIMAL PESTS. The animals, &c., destructive to Vines are numerous, and the number recorded as hurtful is being added to almost every year in Europe and elsewhere; especially is this the case in America, on which continent animal pests are even more abundant and varied than in Europe. By far the most dangerous insect-foe is the Phylloxera vastatrix, of which a full account is given (with a statement of the appropriate remedies to be employed against it) under Grape or Vine Louse. This insect has destroyed the contents of many vineries in Britain, and has devastated extensive vineyards in many parts of the Continent. It has been peculiarly destructive in France. Its galls on the leaves are usually very numerous and very conspicuous; but the less prominent root-galls are even more fatal to the Vines. In mid-Europe, a Gall-midge (Cecidomyia aenophila) produces galls on the leaves not unlike those of Phylloxera; but an examination of a gall will disclose the Midge larva in the central cavity. This Midge has not been recorded as British. The stems and branches are liable to be infested by certain species of Scale Insects on the American and European continents, but none have yet been recorded from Britain. Several kinds of Beetles, besides Weevils (see Vine Weevils), do considerable injury to the leaves and the young twigs, the more noteworthy being Anomala Frischii and A. Vitis. They resemble Cockchafers a good deal in form, but are only about 1/2in. long, and are usually satiny or metallic green or blue, with a clay-yellow band round the sides of the thorax. Both they and the Weevils are found more or less frequently in England, and may prove injurious in vineries. When hurtful, their numbers may be reduced by the methods detailed under the headings quoted. Many species of Lepidoptera feed on Vines; they are discussed, and remedies are given, under Vine Moths. Aphis (Hyalopterus) Pruni is recorded in Buckton's "British Aphides" as living on Vines, as well as on other plants. For appropriate treatment, see Aphides. Among Mites, the worst foe to Vines is the Red Spider (see Tetranychus telarius), which sometimes seriously injures the plants at the period of setting of the fruit, when the supply of water is limited, to improve the flavour. When the attack is severe, the leaves may be so seriously injured that the fruit cannot be properly matured. The Mites may be destroyed by the methods detailed under Tetranychus telarius. It is important, as a preventive of attacks, to allow the roots a good supply of water, and to keep the atmosphere of the house sufficiently moist while the grapes are forming, the amount of water being reduced only after they are beginning to colour. Another Mite that does harm on the Continent of Europe is Phytoptus Vitis (see Mites), which causes a dense growth of pale hairs to appear on the lower surface of the leaves, either in isolated patches, or almost covering the whole surface. This growth was formerly regarded as a Fungus, and was named Erineum Vitis, or Phyllerium Vitis. The plants may be only slightly weakened by these growths; but in bad attacks the leaves are unable to do their work in the nutrition of the Vines, which suffer in consequence. The best remedy is picking off, and burning, the diseased leaves.
The last animal to which we shall refer as causing diseases in Vines, is a Nematoid Worm (Heterodera radicicola) This is nearly related to H. Schachtii (mentioned under Nematoid Worms); and, like that species, it produces small swellings on the roots of very many kinds of plants, including Vines, which become much weakened, or are killed by them. The only remedy, so far as is known, is to carefully remove, and to burn, the diseased plants, so as to prevent the evil from spreading.
SORTS. The varieties of Grapes, like those of all other cultivated fruits, are extremely numerous. In its wild state, the Vine exhibits considerable variation, and under cultivation, in the different climates and countries, sorts obtained from seed have been selected as suited to special conditions and requirements. Thus, in some parts thin-skinned, fleshy grapes prevail, and in others, possessing a warmer and drier climate, the thick-skinned varieties preponderate. In the various wine-growing countries distinct classes of grapes seem to exist, whilst those of America belong to a distinct species, Vitis Labrusca. It is altogether impossible to estimate the number of varieties existing. In this country, grapes being exclusively grown for dessert, the number of varieties in general cultivation is comparatively limited. Miller, in 1768, describes 18 sorts; Speechly, in 1791, records 50 sorts; Forsyth, in 1810, 53 sorts; Thompson, in the Horticultural Society's Fruit Catalogue, in 1831, records 182 names; Dr. Hogg, in the "Fruit Manual," 1875, describes 143 varieties; and in Barron's "Vines and Vine Culture," 100 varieties are fully described, and mostly illustrated, all of which have fruited in the Royal Horticultural Society's Gardens, Chiswick, and from which the following selection has been made, comprising nearly every variety that is worthy of cultivation:
Varieties of European Grapes (Vitis vinifera).
Until a few years ago, the Grapes grown in this country were entirely selected from other countries, but of late years several remarkably fine varieties have been raised in Britain, by careful hybridisation, and are now being introduced in the wine-growing districts.