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Turfing-iron and Turf-beetle

The first-named is an implement with a somewhat heart-shaped blade, and a bent handle. It is used for lifting turf that has previously been marked out and cut through with an edging iron. The Turf-beetle consists of a flat piece of wood, about 3in. thick, with a handle attached at an acute angle to allow of the implement falling flat when lifted and brought down on to the turf. It is used principally for levelling newly-laid turf.

TOOL-SHED. A Tool-shed should be found in every garden. It should be provided with pegs, made of either wood or iron, and fixed near the ceiling, for hanging up Dutch hoes, rakes, scythes, and any other tools with long handles. Other pegs may be situated lower down for forks, shovels, spades, &c. A cupboard or chest should contain all small tools and implements, such as hammers, shears, trowels, &c. Every workman should help to keep the Tool-shed tidy, and the tools in good order, by cleaning everything he uses when any work is finished during the daytime, and returning it to its proper place, and also doing the same every evening when the hour for suspending work arrives. TOPIARY WORK. Although the absurd fashion of cutting and torturing trees into all sorts of fantastic shapes has, happily, almost passed away, yet, as the art of the Topiarist was for a considerable period regarded as the perfection of gardening, some mention of it is desirable here. When the fashion first became popular in Britain, it is probably impossible to ascertain; but it reached its highest point in the sixteenth century, and held its ground until driven out of the field, in the last century, by the natural or picturesque style. From an archaeological point of view, it is not to be regretted that examples of Topiary Work on a large scale still exist in several British gardens. (for which we are indebted to Messrs. Veitch and Sons) represents a view at Elvaston Castle, near Derby. "A large portion of this consists of ornamental hedges of the common Yew, either dividing parts of the grounds from each other, or inclosing spaces devoted to special subjects; and of single specimens, both of the common Yew and its golden variety, cut into conical pyramids of uniform size and height; and of such as these there are upwards of one thousand. There are comparatively few representations of birds and animals; the bolder work represents the walls and bastions of a Norman castle, archways, alcoves, arbours, &c. The great extent of the Topiary Work at Elvaston is calculated to excite surprise rather than admiration; at the same time, its extreme formality is greatly relieved by the noble Conifers of the Fir and Pine tribe which have been planted beside and around it with no sparing hand, and by the beautiful view of the river Derwent, in its winding course through the grounds" (Veitch, "Manual of the Coniferae"). Levens Hall, in Westmoreland, is a still more famous Topiarian garden than Elvaston. For an account of this, and an illustration, of the "Archaeological Journal." Two illustrations of some of the most remarkable groups in this same garden appeared in the "Gardeners' Chronicle" for 1874. Here may be seen figures of the British Lion; of Queen Elizabeth and her ladies: of the Judge's Wig, a number of Yews planted in a half-circle, so as to form an arbour, by bringing the branches over the top in a hood or wig-like fashion; and many others. The astonishing tenacity of life possessed by the Yew is thoroughly proved by the fact that, as the figures (at Levens) above mentioned were first formed early in the eighteenth century, the bulk of the young growths must have been cut off for upwards of one hundred and eighty years, in order to keep the requisite size and form of the objects represented. The vast amount of not unskilled labour requisite to maintain in order any elaborate Topiarian designs will, no doubt-apart from any question of taste-prevent a recurrence of such practices to any appreciable extent. Evergreens were almost exclusively used, and of these, the Box, Yew, and Holly were those which lent themselves most readily to the Topiarist's skill. For columns and other more or less simple figures, the ordinary principle which now rules the clipping of a Yew hedge was sufficient. The branches were checked where too strong, and allowed to develop when not so vigorous, until the requisite size and shape were obtained, after which repeated clippings were necessary, beginning as soon as the young growths appeared in spring. For elaborate figures, a number of plants might be used, and the leading branches of these might be united by "approach-grafting," until a regularly compact network of interlacing branches were securely growing together. By this means, less damage would be likely to occur through heavy falls of snow, or from violent gales. In one of the continental gardens, a few years ago, there were several young plants of the common Ash, grown so as to form, amongst other things, a more or less perfect crown, simply, as the label stated, to show what the skill of the grafter could accomplish. Some half-dozen tall young plants were placed in a circle: one of these was grafted, at some 6ft. from the ground, by approach to the other five, so as to present the appearance of a ring horizontally supported by half-a-dozen stems; from this ring were allowed to develop a series of branches, which were curved over and united into one stem by grafting. After this the branches again divided, and were made to assume other unnatural forms.

Constant attention is required in pruning and disbudding all such strong-growing plants as the Ash, and distorted and unsightly branches and stems are sure to be the result in a comparatively short time. TORENIA (name commemorative of Olef Toren, a Swedish clergyman, who discovered T. asiatica and other plants in China; he died in 1753). SYNS. Nortenia, Pentsteria. ORD. Scrophularineae. A genus embracing about sixteen species of stove, glabrous, pubescent, or hairy herbs, natives of tropical and Eastern extra-tropical Asia and tropical Africa; one is also found in South America, where it was probably introduced. Calyx tubular, plicate or three to five-winged, obliquely three to five-toothed or bilabiate at apex; corolla tube cylindrical or enlarged above, the upper lip broad, emarginate or bifid, the lower one spreading, of three broad, sub-equal lobes; stamens four, perfect; pedicels ebracteolate; racemes short, few-flowered, fascicle-like, or rarely elongated. Leaves opposite, entire, crenated or serrated. The species known to cultivation are described below. They are of easy culture, and are admirably adapted for hanging baskets as well as for pot culture. The annuals may be raised from seed, sown in March or April, and placed in a warm temperature. When large enough to handle, the seedlings should be pricked off into the pots or baskets in which they are intended to flower. Torenias may also be readily propagated by cuttings: any young shoots will root in a close frame, or under a hand glass in a warm house. A compost of loam and leaf mould, with a little sand or charcoal intermixed, is most suitable. T. Fournieri, which grows erect, is best adapted for pot culture: its branches, which do not trail, need the support of a few small stakes. Green Fly are often troublesome to these plants when young. As a preventive, fumigate occasionally.

T. asiatica (Asiatic).* fl. on axillary and sub-umbellate pedicels; calyx 1in. long, scarcely winged; corolla blue, 1 1/4in. to 1 1/2in. long, with very dark violet lateral lobes. June. l. shortly petiolate, ovate-cordate or ovate-lanceolate, serrated, 1 1/2in. to 2in. long. Branches 6in. to 10in. long, slender, diffuse. India, &c., 1845. (B. M. 4249; F. d. S. x. 5, xiii. 1342; I. H. 199.) Annual.

T. a. hirsuta (hairy). fl., lower filaments having a very small tooth. Plant more pubescent than the type. (B. M. 5167, under name of T. hirsuta.) T. auriculaefolia (Auricula-leaved). fl. numerous, growing separately on slender scapes; corolla lobes pale lilac, blotched with purple and veined with white on the disk. Summer. l. radical, sessile, ovate. India, 1871. This plant has much the habit of a Pinguicula. (F. M. 534.) Its proper name is Craterostigma pumilum.

T. Bailloni (Baillon's). A synonym of T. flava.

T. concolor (one-coloured). fl. large, on axillary peduncles longer than the leaves; corolla concolorous, violet-blue. Summer. l. stalked, ovate-cordate, acute, serrate. h. 6in. to 12in. China, 1844. A glabrous or sparingly-pubescent herb, with diffuse, elongated branches. (B. M. 6797; B. R. 62.) T. cordifolia (cordate-leaved). fl. axillary and sub-umbellate; corolla pale blue, 2/3in. long; pedicels often longer than the leaves. July. l. petiolate, ovate, serrated, 1in. to 1 1/2in. long, cuneate or very rarely cordate at base; petioles rarely as long as the blade. h. 4in. to 8in. India, &c., 1811. A sub-erect, sparsely hairy annual. (B. M. 3715.) T. edentula (toothless). A synonym of T. peduncularis. T. flava (yellow).* fl. axillary and in distant pairs; corolla yellow, 1/2in. to 3/4in. long, with a purple eye; pedicels usually shorter than the calyx. Summer. l. sessile or petiolate, ovate or oblong-ovate, obtuse, entire or crenated. h. 6in. to 10in. India, &c., 1878. Erect or decumbent, sparsely hairy or glabrous. (B. M. 6700.) SYN. T. Bailloni (B. H. xxix. i., fig. 2; I. H. xxv. 324; R. H. 1879, 15). Annual.

T. Fordii (Ford's). fl. on short, sub-terminal, axillary peduncles; calyx with almost triangular teeth; corolla small, with an exserted tube, the limb straw-coloured with the lateral lobes blotched with violet. Summer. l. shortly-stalked, broadly ovate-rotundate or cordate. h. 6in. to 12in. An erect, pubescent herb. China. (B. M. 1797.) T. Fournieri (Fournier's).* fl., calyx 3/4in. long, broadly five-winged; corolla tube pale violet, yellow at back, 1in. long; limb 1 1/2in. in diameter, the upper lip pale lilac, obscurely two-lobed, the lower one of three much smaller, bright violet, rounded lobes, the central one with a golden blotch at base; racemes terminal, erect. Summer. l. 1 1/2in. to 2in. long, ovate or ovate-cordate, acute, serrated, bright green. Branches crowded, erect from the root, 4in. to 8in. high, much-branched. Cochin China, 1876. Highly glabrous. Annual. (B. H. 1879, 1; B. M. 6747; Gn., Dec. 1877; I. H. n. s. 249; R. G. 927; R. H. 1876, 465.) T. hirsuta (hairy). A variety of T. asiatica.

T. peduncularis (pedunculate-flowered). fl. usually pale blue, with yellow spots, midway between those of T. asiatica and T. cordifolia, but the filaments are not toothed, as in those species. June. l. petiolate, ovate, crenate-serrated. h. 6in. India, Philippines, &c., 1845. Decumbent or sub-erect, glabrous or softly hairy. SYN. T. edentula (B. M. 4229). TORREYA (named in compliment to Dr. John Torrey, 1796-1873, an American botanist, and one of the authors of the "Flora of North America"). Stinking Yew. SYNS. Caryotaxus, Faetataxus. ORD. Coniferae. A genus embracing only four species of hardy, evergreen trees, emitting a strong, disagreeable odour from all parts when bruised, natives of North America, North China, and Japan. Flowers dioecious, the males solitary and sub-sessile in the axils, the female catkins axillary, sessile, one-flowered. Fruit ovoid, drupe-like, 3/4in. to 1 1/2in. long. Leaves sub-spirally affixed, distichously spreading, very shortly petiolate, linear, flat, similar to those of Taxus, but longer. The species do not attain in Great Britain anything near the beautiful aspect they assume in their native countries. Torreyas thrive in almost any soil They are readily propagated from seeds, which should be sown in spring; the ripe fruits, after being gathered, should be mixed with sand, and treated similarly to those of the Hawthorn, until sowing time. Cuttings also afford a ready means of increasing the stock of any species; these should be inserted in sandy soil, in August, and kept shaded under handlights, or in cold frames, during bright sun, until rooted. Layering may also be advantageously resorted to. T. californica (Californian). Californian Nutmeg. fr. with a leathery-green covering. l. long, narrow, and opposite on the branchlets, but somewhat alternate and scattered round the principal shoots, linear-lanceolate, spiny-pointed, shortly petiolate, decurrent at base, 2in. to 2 1/2in. long, pale yellowish-green. h. 20ft. to 40ft. California, 1851. See Fig. 62. (B. M. 4780; F. d. S. 925; G. C. n. s., xxii., p. 631, under name of T. myristica.) T. grandis (great).* fr. green, the size of a small walnut. l. very rigid, linear-lanceolate, rather short, somewhat falcate, 3/4in. to 1in. long, light glossy-green above, much paler, with two narrow, greyish lines beneath, on very short, spirally-twisted footstalks, more or less opposite, spiny-pointed. Branches whorled, horizontally spreading; branchlets laterally distichous. h. 60ft. to 80ft. China. (G. C. n. s., xxii., p. 681; R. H. 1879, 173.) SYN. Cephalotaxus umbraculifera T. myristica (nutmeg-shape-fruited). A synonym of T. californica. T. nucifera (nut-bearing). fr. 3/4in. long, 1/2in. broad, oval or ovate-oblong, glossy. l. linear, rounded at base, quite straight, flat, leathery, spiny-pointed, mostly curved downwards, 1in. to 1 3/4in. long, on very short footstalks, deep glossy-green, glaucous-white beneath. Branches numerous whorled, alternate, or scattered along the stem, horizontally spreading. h. 20ft. to 30ft. Japan. (R. H. 1873, 315; S. Z. F. J. 129.) T. taxifolia (Yew-leaved).* Stinking Cedar. fr. oval, a little pointed, nearly as large as a walnut. l. rounded at base, and somewhat recurved at the extremity, linear, frequently falcate, stiff, leathery, on very short footstalks, twisted and decurrent at base, spiny-pointed at apex, 1in. to 1 3/4in. long, glossy and convex above, beneath pale glaucous-grey, and marked on each side the midrib with two narrow, reddish, sunken bands. Branches mostly whorled, spreading; branchlets horizontal. h. 40ft. to 50ft. Florida, 1840.(G. C. n. s., iv. 291.) TORRUBIA (named by Leveille, in honour of a Spanish writer on "Vegetable Wasps," as wasps attacked by the plants of this genus [see below] were formerly called). A genus of Fungi, of which by far the larger number are parasitic in insects, spiders, and their allies; while a small number live on other Fungi. Torrubia is the name by which the genus is generally known; but it must give place to the name Cordyceps, previously conferred by the eminent Swedish mycologist, Elias Fries.

The genus belongs to the group of compound Pyrenomycetes (which see); but is peculiar in the substances on which the various species live, and also in the erect, clubbed, fleshy mass of mycelium (called a stroma), the appearance of which is shown.On, or embedded in, it are the flask-shaped perithecia, inclosing asci. In each of the latter are eight thread-like spores, which usually soon break into joints. These joints are capable of giving origin to the cycle again, if they fall on a suitable stratum, e.g., the body of an insect. But they produce not the Pyrenomycetous fungus, but a smaller vertical stroma, branched or simple, composed of a bundle of mycelium threads, which bear numerous round or elliptical, pale, minute conidia, or spores. This stage of these Fungi was formerly regarded as belonging to a distinct group (Hyphomycetes), without asci, and the various forms were grouped together under a new generic name--Isaria. This genus resembles Cordyceps in having an erect, club-shaped stroma; but, instead of inclosing perithecia with asci, the filaments of the mycelium end in free tips, each of which bears small, oval or globular, pale conidia, capable of reproducing either Isaria or Cordyceps. For convenience, the genus Isaria is still kept up, as the perfect or mature forms of a large number of the Fungi placed in it have not yet been recognised, and to attempt to dispense with the group would, at present, only cause confusion and uncertainty. Moreover, there is reason to believe that several of the forms referred to Isaria do not belong to Cordyceps, but should be referred to other genera; in-a-much as they live on a wider range of materials, and some injure living plants also (e.g., Isaria fuciformis destroys grasses in Australia and in the South of England), while Cordyceps is not known as a parasite on living plants. Most of the species in the latter genus abound in tropical countries; but several have been found in Britain, in all their stages of development, on dead insects. Among the best-known of these are C. entomorrhiza and C. militaris: these form slender stalks 1in. to 2in in height, the clubbed heads on which are ovoid or globose. On tracing the stalks downwards, they are found to rise from the bodies of larvae or pupae, buried in the soil or among dead leaves. These Fungi may be regarded as beneficial to gardeners, inasmuch as they destroy insects, many of which feed on garden produce. They are not often met with, however, and can scarcely be regarded as of much importance from this point of view. On the other hand, no species of Cordyceps is known to be injurious in gardens. Probably, the species most widely known, by its popular name at least, is the so-called "Vegetable Caterpillar," often sent from New Zealand. This reaches a height of from 6in. to 8in., the club being from 3in. to 4in. long, and 1/8in. thick. It grows out of the body of some large larva (usually that of an insect allied to the Otter Moth or Ghost Swift), and is often erroneously supposed by the finders to be a caterpillar in course of development into a Fungus. This Fungus is C. Hugelii, Corda; though more generally referred to in English works by the name C. Robertsii, given to it, by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, at a later date than Corda's. Mr. Berkeley has described a still larger species from Australia, under the name Sphaeria Taylori.

TORTRICINA (from torqueo, to twist). A group of Moths, popularly known as Leaf-rollers, because of the habit exhibited by the larvae of many species of rolling up the leaves of their food-plants into tubes, in which they shelter themselves from birds and other foes. Inside the tubes the larvae live and feed in safety; but when the food-plant is shaken, each larva drops from its tube, and hangs suspended by a silken thread. When the danger is past, the larva climbs up the thread, and regains the shelter of the tube. Many larvae become pupae in the tubes. Some species live in roots or twigs (see Retinia), or in unripe fruits (see Apple or Codlin Grub). The Tortricina are all of small size, scarcely any of the moths reaching 1in. in spread of wings. The body is slender, but the wings are comparatively broad, and when at rest they slope like the roof of a house above the body. In many, the costa, or front margin, of the wings is peculiarly curved; so that the insect at rest is not unlike a bell in outline when seen from above. The front wings are, in most of the species, rather uniformly coloured; usually being some shade of brown, with darker markings, or bands and spots. Some show metallic spots; and others have the wings variegated with black and white, while others have them some uniform shade of green. The palpi, or feelers attached to the mouth-pieces, are short and inconspicuous. The larvae have never less than sixteen prolegs, or sucking feet, on the binder rings of the body.

A good many species of this group are injurious to cultivated plants, often by eating the leaves; e.g., Tortrix viridana sometimes strips Oak-trees bare. Roses are also much damaged by several species that live in the rolled leaflets, or inside the leaf-buds and flower-buds. Most fruit-trees are more or less liable to similar injuries; and the Coniferae often have the twigs pierced up the centre by the larvae. Herbaceous plants, though occasionally attacked, are far less often seriously damaged than woody plants or shrubs. Remedies. These vary according to the nature of the injury done. Larvae in tubes are best got rid of by beating the branches well over sheets, or over vessels tarred inside to prevent the escape of the larvae. The insects shaken off should be destroyed. Such as live in twigs are more difficult to dislodge; but sickly twigs should be cut off and burned. Fruits tenanted by larvae usually fall prematurely, and such windfalls should, without delay, be collected from the ground, and destroyed, or given to pigs, as the larvae very soon bore out of the fruits, and pass into the soil, there to remain all winter as pupae. Further information is given under Moths, Oak (INSECT PESTS), and Tortrix.

TORTRIX (from torqueo, to twist; in allusion to the leaves of plants being twisted or rolled by the larvae, to form tubes in which they live). The leading genus of the group of small Moths known as the Tortricina. The genera in this group are distinguished from one another by very slight characters, so that it is difficult for any one but a specialist to be sure of the genera and species. Tortrix is closely related to several other genera, and its extent is somewhat uncertain; some specialists forming several genera from an assemblage of species that others consider ought to be retained in one genus. In the genus, even when most restricted, there are several species hurtful to garden produce and to cultivated trees. Of these the most destructive is T. viridana. This insect has the fore wings pale green, with their front margin sulphur-yellow; they extend from 2/3in. to 1in. in span. The larvae live in tubes formed by rolling up leaves of almost all kinds of trees, and of some shrubs; but they are peculiarly destructive to Oaks, which they occasionally strip absolutely bare. T. icterana has pale-ochreous wings, and is about the same size as T. viridana. Its larvae feed mostly in rolled leaves of herbs, and may be looked on as almost harmless, as they usually feed on weeds. T. heparana and T. ribeana are both brown, with darker markings. The larvae of both feed on the leaves of various trees, and are at times hurtful to fruit-trees. T. (Enectra) Pilleriana, though very rare in Britain, is, in some seasons, very destructive to Vines in France, and elsewhere on the Continent, stripping off the leaves. The larvae have been observed passing the winter sheltered under loose bark, emerging in spring to feed on the buds and young leaves. The fore wings of this Moth have a spread of only about 2/3in.; they are pale ochreous, with a brown patch near the base, and a brown cross-bar in the middle. The other British species of the genus are not sufficiently hurtful to call for special mention.

Remedies. These are given under Tortricina.