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Propagation (This may be accomplished)

This may be accomplished by seeds, by cuttings, by layers, and also by budding and grafting. Seeds are sown with a view to raising new varieties, and more largely for the purpose of procuring stocks, whereon to graft sorts already approved.

Seeds. Seedlings might be raised in rather large pots (about 9 in.) of loamy soil, which should be covered with pieces of slate or board at the time of sowing, to prevent any depredations of mice, and placed on bricks or tiles, to stop worms from entering. If sown in autumn, and the pots are placed in a sheltered position outside, the young seedlings may be expected about March, when the coverings must be removed. Seeds sown later on will require about three months to germinate, while some may keep dormant for nearly a year. The young plants may remain in their pots one summer, and be transferred to the open ground the following autumn. Only the seeds of first-class sorts should be reserved for raising others, and they should be saved from fine fruits which have been gathered from healthy, vigorous trees. Seedling Pears seldom bear fruit before the sixth or seventh year. Seeds intended only for the purpose of raising stocks may be collected, cleaned from the pulp by washing, and afterwards sown in the open ground. Drills about 9 in. apart, and 2 in. deep, are suitable; the soil should be previously well pulverised and prepared. The seedling may be transplanted when a year old, and grown on until they are large enough for grafting.

Cuttings and Layers. Propagation by cuttings is a slow process, only to be recommended for preserving a variety (that might otherwise become lost) until some grafts are procurable. It is not, at all times, an easy or a certain method. Layering is practicable, if it is desired to have trees on their own roots; but there are few, if any, advantages to be derived, and, consequently, this system is not much practised.

Budding and Grafting. These are the principal methods adopted for propagating Pears; the former is practised in the months of July and August, the latter chiefly in March and April, or so soon as the sap begins to flow. Whip or tongue-grafting is the plan best suited; but, according to Baltet, side-grafting under the bark in July and August, cleft-grafting, inlaying in March and April, and crown-grafting in April and May, are also applicable. The trees may be worked as standards, or close to the ground, according to the sort of stock and the form in which it is eventually intended to train them. Stocks. The principal stocks used for Pears are the Pear itself, either common or wildings, the Quince, and sometimes the Whitethorn. On the common Hawthorn, the Mountain Ash (Pyrus Aucuparia), and the Medlar (Mespilus germanica), the Pear may also be grafted with more or less success; but the Pear stock and Quince are the best, and are most extensively used. Pear stocks, as already indicated, are raised from seeds; those obtained from the wild or from common sorts are well adapted. Stocks from Quince are readily propagated from cuttings, taken with a heel, or, better, by means of layering. Old stools that are strong enough to produce vigorous shoots, may be covered with soil; and, during autumn, after a sufficient time has elapsed for the shoots to root, they may be detached and transplanted in the different sizes that are calculated to be ready for grafting about the same time. Layering of short Quince shoots for stocks should be practised some time during winter, and the rooted plants will be ready for removal so soon as the leaves drop in the following autumn. Whitethorn stocks are raised from seeds. In the cultivation of Pears, the sort of stock on which the trees are worked has always a very important bearing, particularly in certain soils, on the general health, vigour, and fruitfulness of the trees after they become established. The Pear stock is, of course, the most natural, and trees grafted on it possess more vigour, and attain a greater age, than do those on any other. The roots, however, have a tendency to penetrate deeply into the subsoil, which is, in many localities, cold and unsuitable to their requirements; they are also long, and have but few small fibres: consequently, the trees do not transplant readily, unless the work is rather frequently undertaken, and the roots are kept pruned. In deep and rich land, the Pear stock is apt to induce a too luxuriant growth, which is attended with comparative unfruitfulness; but, in hot districts, and in chalky soils, this stock may be found to possess considerable advantages over any other. Grafting of seedling Pear stocks may be practised, either close to the ground, or at any desired height, as stock and scion are inclined to enlarge at about an equal rate. For standards, only stout, vigorous stocks are suitable for grafting at some height up; weak ones are, for this purpose, of little use, unless worked near the ground with a variety likely to be of sufficiently upright growth to form the requisite stem itself. Preparations for grafting should commence by cutting off scions before any signs of vegetation appear, and laying them in deeply under a north wall. The stocks should also be cut back near to where the union is intended, before the sap commences to rise. In contrast to the Pear stock, and its method of rooting, as already referred to, stands the Quince, which offers many advantages in comparison. It encourages a dwarfer growth, and an earlier bearing habit, and the fruit is often more highly coloured and better ripened. The Quince forms numerous fibry roots within a short distance from the surface, none of which are inclined to go deep; consequently, the trees may be readily and safely transplanted, even when they are several years old. This stock is specially adapted for shallow soils, for damp situations, and for planting where the subsoil is of an unfavourable description. Ripening of the wood goes on concurrently with that of the fruit, and the less vigorous growth which is encouraged has, therefore, a much better chance of becoming matured in autumn. As Quince wood does not usually enlarge so rapidly as that of the Pear, grafting should be performed as close as possible to the ground, and, after the clay is added, some soil should be brought and heaped over it. If a Quince stock were grafted with a Pear at any distance above ground, in all probability, the scion above would eventually enlarge faster, and the tree stem would be of less diameter near the ground than higher up. By working low, and keeping the Quince portion from being exposed, this may be avoided. For procuring standard trees on Quince roots, it is, therefore, best to adopt a system of double-grafting--that 6is, work a vigorous variety of Pear at the base, to grow and form a stem, on which any desired sort may be grafted higher up. Double-grafting proves very advantageous with many varieties of Pears, but it does not answer on all alike. On this point, Mr. Rivers, who makes the system a speciality, states: "Double-grafted Pears seem always to make healthy and prolific trees; it must not, however, be concluded that to graft a free-growing sort of Pear on the Quince and then to regraft it with the desired sort, will always answer. Some kinds require the stock belonging to their race; this can only be found out by the clever cultivator--as, for instance, the Jargonelle on the Beurre d'Amanlis, the union of which is perfect, and the trees healthy. Gansel's Bergamot, double grafted, becomes a marvel of fertility." It is especially important that Quince stocks intended for grafting should be cut back, for the purpose, very early in the year: active growth begins, in favourable weather, by February, or, at least, the sap commences to flow; and if heading back is deferred until this takes place, the upper part of the stock left will often die, and the grafts in consequence fail to unite.

CULTIVATION. Soil and Situation. Any fairly rich, loamy soil, of good depth, with a subsoil sufficiently well drained to prevent the possibility of stagnant water accumulating, will usually be found to suit Pear-trees. When planting, the size of garden, and the amount of wall space available for the tree in question, should be taken into consideration, as well as the character of the soil. The last-named item must, to a considerable extent, determine the sort of stock best suited--namely, whether it shall be the Pear or the Quince. On the first-named stock, the trees will prove more vigorous, and will require a greater depth of soil; the result frequently being that a much longer period must elapse before they arrive at a bearing state. Where space is limited, and the soil shallow, trees on the Quince stock should have preference over others. It is important to remember that the roots of a tree worked on Quince are concentrated very close to the base, and are situated very near the surface. They require, because of this, more frequent attention by way of replenishing part of the soil around them, and by the application, at least annually, of a thick mulching of good manure, which tends to preserve moisture as well as to afford nutriment. Some sorts of Pears, worked on Quince, have a tendency, in a favourable season, to bear an unduly heavy crop, which, if allowed, would be likely to check the new growth and bring the tree to a stunted and unfruitful state. This must be avoided, by thinning the fruit under such circumstances, when in a young state, or by giving special attention to supplying sufficient nourishment throughout the bearing season, for perfecting the crop, without risking the proper maturation of wood for the following year. Although the Pear will often succeed in a rather strong, loamy soil, it will not do so on heavy clay, unless previously well drained, trenched, and allowed to become pulverised. To encourage a start in young trees, where the soil is somewhat unfavourable or poor, a compost of turfy loam, decayed manure, and old potting soil, if procurable, should be mixed and applied above the roots, after they are merely covered with soil from which manure is excluded. It is of importance that the roots be carefully and evenly spread out in planting. Regarding the various situations in which Pears succeed, much depends on the different localities and the sorts grown. Even where good sorts are found to succeed fairly well in the open garden, their fruits are invariably much improved in quality if some trees are favoured with a position against a wall. Wall space is usually limited, yet it is questionable if it could be more profitably occupied than by good sorts of Pears--at least, in gardens where the fruit is much valued, and where samples from the open rarely attain a state approaching perfection. A south aspect is that recommended for really good dessert sorts; many will also do well on walls, with either an eastern or a western exposure. The frequent failure of the Pear crop may principally be attributed to the extremely precarious weather so generally experienced in spring, when the trees are in blossom, and also for a time afterwards, when young fruits should be continuing to make progress in swelling off. Trees against walls may then be more readily protected with temporary coverings of some sort than others fully exposed; the wall, moreover, is of material help in itself, affording shelter particularly if some coping boards are fixed near the top, somewhat like those in frequent use over Peachtrees.

Systems of Training. There are numerous systems of training Pear-trees, according to the purpose for which the trees are required, and the position they are intended to occupy. For the open garden, standard and bush trees, pyramids, espaliers, and cordons are each and all available; for walls, the modes of training usually adopted are the horizontal, the fan, and double or triple cordons, trained in either an upright or an oblique direction. Dwarf lateral cordons, with stems about 1ft. high, and two branches trained in opposite directions, are suitable for planting in sunny positions alongside walks, where they occupy but little space, and usually succeed on warm, rather light soils. Espalier training has long been popular for the open ground. It admits of trees being planted within about 2ft. of the edge of a walk, and the ground may be cropped to within a short distance of their base. An espalier fence on which to train Pear-trees may be formed by straining horizontal wires 1ft. apart, on a framework about 6ft. high. This would admit of a tree being trained with an upright stem and six horizontal branches on either side. If several espalier tees were permanently planted in a continous line, a space of from 16ft. to 20ft. should be allowed between each two; cordon or other trees might be grown in this space, with a view to their being removed before the other branches meet. Espalier fences are more frequently formed of wooden rails, or stout upright stakes, than of wires, on account of the expense incurred in erecting the latter, and the objection usually taken to their appearance when fixed. This arrangement is also preferable where only a few espaliers are grown and where the trees are widely disposed. The pointed ends of stakes so used should first be charred or dipped in hot creosote. Espalier training has many advantages over other systems. It admits of all the branches being well exposed to light on both sides, and easy facilities are also afforded for regulating them, so as to equalise the flow of sap. The fruits on such trees are usually not much injured by rough winds, and it is a comparatively easy matter to protect the blossoms in spring. Besides horizontally-trained trees, the five-branched vertical, and single cordons, may be grown on strained wire fences, in which position, if some slight protection is afforded the trees when in flower, good results may be obtained. Standard Pears are mostly worked on the Pear stock. This form of tree is not much planted in kitchen gardens, but is most frequently seen in paddocks, orchards, & c., and is still more extensively adopted for market gardens, where the ground beneath is cropped with bush fruits, & c. When once properly started, standard trees grow rapidly, and soon arrive at a bearing state. They may be planted in rows at about 30ft. apart, and 25ft. distant in the rows; or more space may be allowed according to circumstances. Bush Pear-trees on the Quince stock are usually very productive, and, when laden with fruit, are exceedingly ornamental. They are specially adapted for small gardens, and may be planted as close as 4ft. or 6ft. Bush trees may readily be kept at a height not exceeding the latter figure, and eventually induced to grow nearly as much in diameter. When they are in full bearing, it is necessary to apply a good top-dressing of manure. Pyramid training is largely practised with Pear-trees, and handsome specimens, some 15ft. high, are sometimes to be seen. Such trees, when once formed, invariably flower profusely, and, if the weather and season prove favourable, are very productive. Pyramids may be procured worked either on the Pear stock or on the Quince. On the Pear stock, and in good deep soil, 8ft. to 10ft. apart may be allowed in large gardens; for the Quince, 6ft. between will generally prove sufficient, particularly if space is limited. Single, double, or triple cordons soon effectively furnish walls and afford opportunities for growing those varieties that are known to succeed, and for trying any reputed good sorts from other localities. The trees may be trained vertically or obliquely; for high walls, the first-named plan may be adopted, while an oblique angle would allow a further extension on a low wall. They may have been worked on either Pear or Quince stocks, according to which succeeds best; and, in planting, provision should be made for allowing a space of from 1ft. to 1 1/2ft. between each two of the cordon branches. The different sorts of cordon will, therefore, cause a variation in the distances apart to be allowed when planting.

Horizontal training is the system perhaps most generally adopted for Pear-trees on walls; that is, an upright stem is secured, with branches proceeding horizontally in either direction. If grafted on the Quince, these trees should not be situated much wider apart than 12ft.; otherwise, the branches from each will not extend sufficiently far to properly occupy the intervening space. On the Pear stock, they may be planted about 20ft. apart. Walls being so expensive to build, and so valuable for the cultivation of fruit-trees, it is most important that their surfaces should be covered with branches as quickly as possible. The branches on trees horizontally trained require to be about 1ft. apart, and, as generally only one pair can be obtained each year, the system for wall-covering is rather a slow one. To utilise the intervening space between permanent trees, riders may be planted midway, and trained as well as circumstances admit, something in the way suggested at B, Fig. 45, where A, A represent the permanent trees. Such temporary trees for fruit-production are not much to be depended upon, as they have to be cut away when the others require space, and this is, perhaps, just at the time they arrive at a bearing state. One of the chief essentials with horizontal trees is to keep their lower branches equally vigorous with the more favourably-placed upper ones. To effect this, it is frequently necessary to raise the former in an oblique direction, while the latter are kept horizontal, until of about an equal strength, when they may all be trained horizontally. In order to furnish the angle between two permanent trees trained under this system, the upper pair of branches of a rider would of necessity have an undue advantage over the others below, as shown in the illustration to which reference has been made. This would be unavoidable, and a mere furnishing of the wall would be the chief result, with what fruit the untoward circumstances allowed.

Fan-training of Pears (represented in Fig. 46) is better adapted for walls that are much higher than those usually surrounding gardens, as, by it, the upper portions may be far more quickly reached and covered, than by the horizontal system. Fan-trained trees are not so easily managed in a young state as those grown on either of the other methods for furnishing walls to which reference has been made. When once established, they frequently, though not always, bear fruit of good quality, particularly near the tops of the branches. Since cordons have-become more extensively cultivated, fan-trained trees have, to a great extent, been displaced.

Pear-tree Arbours. For covering a portion, or the whole, of a main, central, or other walk in a garden with Pear-trees, a plan such as that represented in Fig. 47 might be adopted. For training such trees, a curved iron bar would be best for forming the span, and affording the necessary support; trees on rider stocks, either on the Pear or double-grafted, being planted opposite each other, and trained in the way shown by the engraving. The centre of the span should be from 7ft. to 10ft. above the walk, according to the proportionate width of the latter. By summer pinching, such trees might be kept restricted without much pruning in winter, and only sufficient space for insuring the full admission of light and sunshine need be allowed between them when planting.